It is well established that stressing meat animals (in my discussions, the term "meat animals" includes all red meat and poultry) can have a dramatic effect on the quality of the meat from carcasses of those stressed animals. What is not so well understood is the impact of stressing animals on the microbial flora, and thus the safety, of the meat. Transportation of live animals to market(s) is only one form of stress that an animal my undergo during the production and marketing processes. An animal can be stressed by any change in its internal and external environments. Examples include rate of growth, reproductive state, climate, unusual light or sound, social interactions, availability of food or water, handling and moving or a disease in progress (Gross and Siegel, 1993). These authors also indicate that levels of stress can be estimated by presence of disease. When stress levels are high, viral and other diseases are more common. When levels of stress are too low, bacterial and parasitic diseases are more common and response to some toxins more severe. This suggests that some level of "optimum stress" may be desirable to maintain resistance to disease.

Limited information is available in the scientific literature on the actual impact of handling and stress on the microbial populations that can be found on carcasses and especially the extent of pathogens remaining. This paper will present a summary of the information available on the roles of transportation and marketing on food safety as two links in the production and distribution of meat products to consumers. Three areas will be considered: transportation, handling, etc., of live animals, conversions of live animals into carcasses (slaughtering) and transportation of perishable meat products to insure food safety. Since there is more information available on the areas of live animals and slaughter, greater emphasis will be placed on the transportation of meat products and food safety.

The impact of transportation of pigs on changes in microflora as reported by Molitoris et al. (1987) revealed that changes in the relative abundance of two biotypes of Streptococcus faecium were associated with transit and holding of the pigs. The greatest variety of coliforms was isolated from porcine feces after 2 h transit or 3 h holding and was quantitatively similar to those from pigs on the farm. Isolates from pigs with longer transit or holding times were almost all Escherchia coli of four biotypes. Streptococcal resistance to most antimicrobial agents was significantly greater in isolates from live pigs at slaughter plants than those from pigs at the farm and was apparent after short (2h) transit time. When compared with short transit times, moderate transit times (6h) were associated with significantly decreased coliform resistance and decreased resistance transfer but a greater diversity of antimicrobial resistances(AMR) patterns. Holding pigs overnight (14h) was associated with lowered coliform resistance to several antimicrobial agents, compared with the resistance of isolates from pigs held 3 or 39h.

From a small sample of cattle (two groups of seven cattle each), Sowinska et al. (1994) determined the leukocyte count and pH values in longissimus dorsi muscles of 20 month old heifers transported under two different conditions of temperature and relative humidity (10C/60%rh and 28C/80%rh) to the slaughterhouse. They concluded that hot and humid weather influenced the development of

transport stress and subsequent changes in the meat from the carcasses. Transport stress decreased lymphocyte and eosinophil counts by 11 and 3 % respectively and increased neutrophil count by 13% in Group I. Corresponding values for Group II were 17, 4 and 21% respectively. The values for pH remained high in the carcasses from group II (6.95/6.51) and dark, firm, dry (DFD) meat was determined from that group.

Brown et al. (1990) reported the overall incidence of dark cutting beef (depleted glycogen due to preslaughter stress, identified by pH<6.0) in 4816 cattle slaughtered in eight abbatoirs in southern England was 4.1%. An increased incidence was associated with short miles (<20 miles) or long (>150 miles) transporting distances, slaughter on the day of arrival and large abbatoirs (killing more than 100 animals per day). Bulls showed the greatest incidence with heifers the lowest. There was a seasonal effect with the greatest incidence between July and October .

In a Canadian study, Jones and Tong (1989) found that the incidence of dark cutting beef increased as distance from farm to slaughter increased. It was also higher in loads of cattle that were mixed during transportation than in those that originated from the same farm. The incidence of dark cutting beef ranged from 1.54% to 0.045%. It was concluded that mixing of loads and the slaughter plant were the most important predisposing factors for the prevalence of dark cutting beef.

In a survey of 2.9 million pigs transported to seven slaughter plants in the United Kingdom, Warriss and Brown (1994) reported that 1781 (0.06%) died in transit and 314 (0.011%) died subsequently in holding pens. The survey provided no evidence that the mortality among transported pigs has increased over the last 20 years. Knowles et al. (1994) used the computerized records of all

lambs slaughtered at one plant in UK from August 1991 to July 1992 to determine the mortality rate throughout the year and to examine the variables that could have been associated with changes in mortality rate. They found that lambs arriving for slaughter from a livestock auction were over four times more likely to die in the holding pens or to have died during transport, than lambs which

were sent directly from the farm. Changes in the mortality rate of lambs from livestock auctions appeared to be associated with the price of slaughter lambs and periods of increased mortality coincided with increased rates of carcass condemnations due to "arthritis", "abscess" and "pleurisy". However, the overall mortality rate was only 0.0182% and lower than that for all other species for which figures were available.

The data in this section clearly shows that transportation induces a form of stress on meat animal carcasses but little is known or offered in terms of how this stress affects the microbial flora on carcasses. Much earlier research (Hanson et al. 1964) has shown that increased shedding of salmonella spp. occurs following stress in pigs but the effects on carcasses have not been determined.

There seems to be no evidence of cause and effect for the increased shedding of pathogens from live animals and a subsequent increase in the presence of the pathogen on meat.

Major slaughtering plants have in place hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) plans that cover the entire slaughtering and processing cycle from the receipt of live animals to loading the packaged products onto the vehicles for shipping. HACCP is defined as a systematic approach to

be used in food production as a means to assure food safety. The HACCP concept is to prevent food safety problems before they occur. These food safety problems include biological, chemical and physical hazards. The HACCP plan is a written document that proceeds in seven steps from identifying the potential hazard to verifying that corrective action has been taken to assure that the hazard has been eliminated. HACCP is not the magic bullet that solves all food safety problems. It is, however (when properly applied), a set of preliminary steps and principles that gives a systematic method for identifying significant hazards and properly applying preventive measures so foodborne hazards are prevented, eliminated or reduced to an acceptable level (Pierson 1995).

For successful transportation and marketing, perishable food products must be continuously protected from changes in outside temperatures. This is accomplished through the use of appropriate equipment and processes that are used to make up the "cold chain". The cold chain must extend from production to consumption and through the different phases of transport to include, in addition to the actual transport, loading, unloading, handling and storage. A condition that must be realized in the transportation of perishable foods is that, greater distances and increased handling of the products increases the opportunities for a breakdown in the continuity of the cold chain.

According to the Guide to Refrigerated Transport (International Institute of Refrigeration, 1995), the basic rules for handling perishable foods are:

1 Each food should be maintained as close as possible to optimum temperature. Both refrigerated and frozen foods can be damaged by transporting at temperatures other than optimum.

2 The composition of atmospheres in which live products are kept should be monitored and controlled. This is especially important when transporting fruits and vegetables which respire during transport.

3 Sanitation measures should be taken, including cleaning of vehicles and protection of products from contamination.

4 Shippers/haulers should always beware of cross-contamination of products being shipped.

This includes certain products that may absorb odors from other goods being shipped in the same load such as meat and citrus fruits or contamination from residuals in a container from previous loads that are not completely removed prior to loading. A good example of this type of contamination is onion odors that exist and are absorbed by meat products even though no actual onions are present in the container.

In general, the longer the journey or storage period the more critical these factors become in preserving the products in good marketable condition. The quality of products at final destination depends on many factors:

1 sanitation and sensory properties of the products when packed/loaded.

2 the physiological state of the foods (degree of ripening, etc.)

3 protection from dehydration, thermal shocks, mechanical deterioration, etc., as provided by packaging and handling.

4 maintenance of temperatures during transit/storage.

5 air circulation during transit.

6 use of equipment that is compatible with pallet size and refrigeration requirements (refrigerated v. frozen) and temperature regulation enroute.

7 temperature regulation at the interfaces of handling perishable products.

There are three basic types of transport: sea transport (conventional refrigerator ships, container ships), land transport (rail, truck) and air transport. Of the approximately 47 million tons exported between continents each year, about 60% goes by sea, 35% by land and 5% by air. Approximately 22 million tons of meat, fish and dairy products are exported intercontinentally each year with 40% of that total moving by sea transport.

Transportation of perishable foods within a continent does not involve sea transport except the hauling of seagoing containers over road or rail systems and a very small amount by barge. Most of the perishable cargoes are hauled by trucks with a lesser amount by rail. Rail shipments may be by self-contained refrigerated rail car or by flatcars carrying sea containers.

Over-the-road hauling involves refrigerated trucks or flatbed trailers used to haul sea containers with most of the refrigerated freight moving in refrigerated trailers. Refrigerated trailers are a necessary link for distribution of perishable foods from seaports and rail heads to the ultimate consumers. Thus, most all of the refrigerated freight ultimately finds its way to the consumer via truck transport. Preserving the cold chain throughout the transportation system becomes a key element in the successful movement of perishable foods.

In the logistics of handling perishable foods, transport is only one part, an integral part, of the "cold chain". Logistics may be defined as all of those operations necessary to move the products from production to consumption. While this is a simplified definition of logistics, the actual practice of safe handling of perishable foods is quite complicated. It is estimated that, over short distances (within country), that the same product may be transported from two to five times and handled many more times than that during the course of shipment and storage.

The logistics of moving perishable products throughout the "cold chain" involves, after proper processing, storage to achieve adequate temperatures (refrigeration/freezing) prior to shipment and:

1 assembly for shipping: palletizing, loading containers, making up the manifest for a particular load.

2 loading into refrigerated trailers/containers/cars.

3 the actual movement of the vehicle (transporting)

4 unloading products from the refrigerated environs.

5 movement into refrigerated storage and

6 refrigerated storage.

The scenario described above is the simplest form of logistics that could be devised for perishable products. Most shipments are much more complicated than that just described. For example, shipments involving intermodal transport such as highway trailer loaded onto rail car (piggyback) than unloaded into a warehouse for further distribution or to await shipment by sea. Each time the product is handled, an "interface" in the cold chain is established. It is at these interfaces that opportunities for deleterious temperature changes can occur, through mishandling, that may adversely affect the safety and quality of the food.

The simplest form of transportation is one where product is loaded in a refrigerated trailer/container at the processor, shipped directly to the end user and unloaded into cold storage where it is then used without further handling. This seldom is the case. More likely, products will be loaded into trailers or containers and moved several times, perhaps by different companies (this also changes fiscal and technical responsibilities for the load), possibly unloaded, stored and reloaded prior to final distribution to retail stores or outlets.

Transportation of food by trucks involves several phases: loading, unloading, storage and actual movement. There are several important factors that need to be considered in these phases to prevent spoilage. Some of these factors are common to all the phases of the trucking industry, while others are specific to each phase. Transportation of food using less-than-truckload (LTL) trucks or trucks

that carry mixed loads (refrigerated and frozen on the same trailer) poses additional problems. The factors related to storage will be discussed later in this document. The important factors to be considered during transportation are refrigeration, air circulation, humidity, insulation, length of transit, and, of course, the outside ambient temperature.

Loading/unloading: The important factors to be considered while loading are cleaning, precooling, proper packaging, loading pattern, and partial loading/unloading and compatibility of mixed shipments in the case of LTL loads.

Cleaning: Cleanliness is critical to prevent chemical, bacterial and odor contamination of food products loads. For transporting meat, the trailer should be washed with hot (180F) water to kill/reduce bacteria and dissolve greasy substances. In certain situations, a sanitizing agent may be added. Ground coffee may be dusted on the walls and floors, then swept clean to remove strong/objectionable odors. The trailer should be well maintained without broken parts or sharp edges.

Precooling the trailer/product: Precooling the trailer is required in hot weather to reduce the load on the vehicle refrigeration system.

Packaging and loading pattern: Proper placing of the food packets inside the container, sufficient insulation of containers, and appropriate stacking and positioning of the containers are important. This will minimize product spoilage from physical stress due to weight, and thermal stress due to heat, humidity, and poor air circulation. Selection of insulation material, determining the vertical height for loading and allowing space between the trailer wall and containers are important issues.

Partial loading/unloading: In the case of LTL trucking, shipments are loaded/unloaded at various

intermediate points in the transportation cycle. The issues in this case are availability of air conditioned dock, opening and closing of trailer doors, time of day of loading and unloading, the number of intermediate points, total length of haul from origin to destination and the ambient outside temperature. Partial loading/unloading also leads to poor loading patterns. As much as possible, loading/unloading should be done in the evening or early morning to beat the heat. Also, doors should not be left open when picking up a load from the warehouse for loading. Obviously, the opening and closing of doors during loading/unloading has an impact on the temperature of the freight but there are no definitive studies that detail the extent of that impact.

Compatibility of mixed (frozen and refrigerated) shipments: This is an important issue in the case of LTL shipments. The shipments should be compatible in terms of temperature, humidity, gas emissions, odor release, and other requirements. Even among compatible shipments, the trailer must be divided into compartments that maintain different humidity and temperature levels. The compartments should be precooled appropriately and loading patterns should be different for different shipments.

Use of ice may be required for some products while other products may be damaged by contact with ice. Similarly, production of certain gases from certain products may be harmful to other products. Some products may release odors and others may absorb them.

There is a marked difference in the handling of truckloads as opposed to less-than-truckload (LTL) because of the nature of the distribution. Truckload lots are loaded at a manufacturing plant or warehouse then offered for delivery at another warehouse or, more likely, at the final destination. This procedure minimizes handling and thus minimizes the opportunities for any mishandling that would create hazards to food safety. There is considerable less opportunity for temperature variations that are damaging to foods because the product is only loaded and unloaded once each, under ordinary circumstances.

A major hauler of perishable foods has expressed that "80% of the problems encountered with hauling perishables comes from 20% of the shipments" Of that 20% of the shipments that result in problems, 80% comes from LTL shipments. Let us examine the difference between truckload and LTL shipment. As mentioned, truckloads are loaded once while LTL shipments may be loaded and unloaded several times. Truckloads route directly from shipper to consignee. LTL shipments most often are placed on regularly scheduled routes among major cities such as Chicago and Atlanta. LTL freight originating in, for example, Wisconsin, and destined for Florida would be transported to Chicago where it would be off-loaded into a warehouse then manifested on a route truck to Atlanta. In Atlanta, the freight could again be off-loaded into a warehouse, stored briefly and rerouted on an LTL truck to Florida. Each time freight is loaded or unloaded, opportunity exists, even under the best of handling conditions, for temperature fluctuation that may cause problems with safe food. With more handling, there is more physical damage to the cases/cartons which are physical barriers to contamination from external sources. This is not to say that LTL shipments are handled with less care than truckloads, but they are simply handled many more times in the course of completing the shipments.

Claims managers for haulers of perishable goods are always confronted with "over, short and damaged" (OS&D) on the various claims. "Over" and "short" refers to the case count and means that the cases were miscounted during loading/unloading or, in some cases, pilferage. (While of great concern to everyone in the transportation cycle, pilferage is another whole subject that will not be

discussed here.) Of the OS&D problems, it has been estimated that damaged goods creates twice as many problems as overages or shortages. Again, damaged cases can become food safety problems.

Finally, since consumers do not buy truckload lots, all freight is eventually handled as LTL freight. Truckload freight may go to cold storage warehouses but there the freight is broken into smaller lots that are distributed to stores, restaurants or other end users. Guidelines for handling freight by delivery trucks should be the same as for LTL freight with even greater emphasis on maintenance of temperature, proper loading/unloading patterns and the closing of doors between and while at drop locations.

Most fast food chains have written guidelines concerning the temperature of freight when received from the distributors truck. Additional written rules contain guidelines that include the length of time that freight can remain out of refrigeration before it is placed into refrigerated storage. HACCP plans for transportation should mesh with store HACCP plans to insure that there is no breach of safety standards at critical junctures in handling, as occurs when change of ownership occurs.

Warehouses are an important part of the logistics of handling perishable food. Warehousing is really temporary storage of perishable food in transit to the end user, the consumer. There are few problems that arise from storage but many problems that come from the procedures involved in receiving and shipping from the facility. Again, it is important to maintain the "cold chain" or envelope of cold

around the products. Good warehousing practices involve scheduling of trucks for loading/unloading, prompt movement of products into and out of the coolers/freezers and particular attention to keeping product on the loading docks for the minimum time possible.

A cold storage warehouse is another interface in the transportation chain and, as noted earlier, most problems in product damage occur at the interfaces of transportation. These problems can be physical damage to the cartons as well as allowing the temperature to rise causing food deterioration and possible food safety problems.

Interfaces in transportation cycles are also important because the responsibilities for the product may also change or shift from one owner to another at this juncture. Legal liabilities may transfer as the product goes from the possession of one party to the other with the bills of lading as a "paper trail" of the transaction.

Transportation of livestock induces stress but the relationship between stress and the ultimate safety of the food produced has not been definitely established.

Controlling food safety in transportation, storage and warehousing is a matter of constant attention to the logistical details of maintaining the "cold chain" necessary to preserve perishable foods. These details are complicated by different modes of transport, types of products being transported and stored, and the distances and many interfaces involved in moving foods from origin to consumption. HAACPs developed for transportation must interface with existing plans in place at both ends of the

transport trail: production plants and warehouse, stores and food establishments. A big job, but not impossible.

(Acknowledgements: This report has been prepared from materials furnished by members of the Technical Advisory Group, Department of Transportation and USDA, developing guidelines for the transportation of perishable foods. Dr. W.L. Brown, Chairman.)

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PB: Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW); Potters Bar; UK PY: 1993

TI: Indicators of physiological stress in broiler chickens during road transportation.

AD: AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Research, Edinburgh Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9PS.

SO: Animal-Welfare. 1992, 1: 2, 91-103; 42 ref.

PY: 1992

TI: Changes in antimicrobial resistance in fecal bacteria associated with pig transit and holding times at slaughter plants.

AD: Microbial Systematics Sect., Nat. Inst. Dental Res., Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.

SO: Applied-and-Environmental-Microbiology. 1987, 53: 6, 1307-1310; 12 ref.

PY: 1987

TI: Stress in the calf.

OT: Le stress chez le veau.

AD: Inst. d’ Elevage, Path. Hygiene Alimentaire, BP 9 - 22440 Ploufragan, France.

SO: Recueil-de-Medecine-Veterinaire. 1988, 164: 10, 849-855; 11 ref. PY: 1988

TI: Recommendations of veterinary task force for export of live sheep by sea for slaughter.

SO: New Zealand Veterinary Association Sheep and Beef Cattle Society. Proceedings of the Society’s 17th Seminar, Waikato University, Hamilton, New Zealand, May 27-29th, 1987. 1987, 142-145.

PB: New Zealand Veterinary Association; Wellington; New Zealand PY: 1987

TI: Pre-slaughter handling and transport of broiler chickens. AD: Department of Animal Husbandry, Langford House, Langford, Bristol, BS18 7DU, UK.

SO: Applied-Animal-Behaviour-Science. 1990, 28: 1-2, 57-73; 90 ref. PY: 1990

TI: Prevalence of Salmonella in healthy calves following

transportation to the stockyards and at slaughter.

AD: College of Veterinary Medicine and School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.

SO: Bulletin-of-Animal-Health-and-Production-in-Africa. 1990, 38: 1, 101-102; 11 ref.

PY: 1990

TI: Salmonella spp. present in pigs imported into Messina. OT: Ricerche sui portatori sani-diffusori di Salmonella: indagini in suini importati a Messina dall’estero.

AD: Istituto di Malattie Infettive, Universita degli Studi di Messina, Via S. Cecilia 30, 98123 Messina, Italy.

SO: Igiene-Moderna. 1994, 102: 1, 35-57; 160 ref.

PY: 1994

TI: Effect of transport on body weight loss in sheep

OT: Perdidas por transporte en ovinos

AD: Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain

SO: Actas de las XVI Jornadas Cientificas, Sociedad Espanola de Ovinotecnia y Caprinotecnia, Pamplona, Spain, September 1991. 1992, 480-486; 16 ref.

PY: 1992

TI: Transport and pre-slaughter handling.

AD: Department of Animal Husbandry, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DU, UK.

SO: Applied-Animal-Behaviour-Science. 1990, 28: 1-2, 1-211; many ref. PY: 1990

TI: Pre-slaughter treatment of cattle.

SO: Meat-Focus-International. 1993, 2: 8, 357-358; 3 ref.

PY: 1993

TI: Export of slaughter sheep - an epidemiological analysis. SO: Publication -Veterinary-Continuing-Education,-Massey-University. 1991, No. 134, 111-126; Proceedings, 21st Seminar, Sheep and Beef Cattle Society, New Zealand Veterinary Association, July 1991; 21 ref. PY: 1991

TI: The influence of transport in different weather conditions on leukocyte count and pH values in the longissimus dorsi muscle in fattened heifers.

OT: Wplyw transportu w roznych warunkach atmosferycznych na obraz bialokrwinkowy oraz na wartosc pH miesnia najdluzszego grzbietu jalowek rzeznych.

AD: Zaklad Zoohigieny, Instytut Hodowli i Technologii Produkcji Zwierzecej, Akademia Rolniczo-Techniczna, Olsztyn, Poland. SO: Acta-Academiae-Agriculturae-ac-Technicae-Olstenensis,-Zootechnica

. 1994, No. 39, 105-110; 8 ref.

PY: 1994

AU: Tarasov-SA; Buyanov-AA; Ivanyushin-BI; Palanov-AP; Parfenov-AF TI: Pathological conditions encountered in large scale pig complexes in the Leningrad [St Petersburg] area.

AD: Veterinary Institute, St Petersburg, Russia.

SO: Veterinariya-Moskva. 1993, No. 7, 42-44.

PY: 1993

TI: Long distance transportation of steers to slaughter: effect of stocking density on physiology, behaviour and carcass quality. AD: National Food Centre, Teagasc, Dunsinea, Castleknock, Dublin 15, Ireland.

SO: Livestock-Production-Science. 1992, 30: 3, 223-238; 23 ref. PY: 1992

TI: The effect of stocking density during 4 hour transport to slaughter on behaviour, blood constituents and carcass bruising in Friesian steers.

AD: National Food Cent., Agric. Food Development Authority, Dunsinea, Castleknock, Dublin 15, Irish Republic.

SO: Meat-Science. 1988, 24: 3, 209-222; 7 ref.

PY: 1988

TI: Thiamine deficiency in sheep exported live by sea.

AD: Regional Veterinary Laboratory, Department of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PO Box 483, Bairnsdale, Vic. 3875, Australia. SO: Australian-Veterinary-Journal. 1990, 67: 6, 215-218; 32 ref. PY: 1990

CA: UK, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.

TI: Guidance on the transport of casualty farm animals.

AD: Whitehall Place, London SW1A 2HH, UK.

SO: 1993, 18 pp.; 13 ref.

PB: MAFF; London; UK

PY: 1993

TI: Production and animal welfare.

AD: Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh School of Agriculture, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK.

SO: Outlook-on-Agriculture. 1995, 24: 1, 11-15; 9 ref.

PY: 1995

TI: The handling of cattle pre-slaughter and its effects on carcass and meat quality.

AD: Department of Meat Animal Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY, UK.

SO: Applied-Animal-Behaviour-Science. 1990, 28: 1-2, 171-186; 81 ref. PY: 1990

TI: A survey of mortality in slaughter pigs during transport and lairage.

AD: Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY, UK.

SO: Veterinary-Record. 1994, 134: 20, 513-515; 8 ref.

PY: 1994

TI: The depletion of glycogen stores and indices of dehydration in transported broilers.

AD: School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY, UK.

SO: British-Veterinary-Journal. 1993, 149: 4, 391-398; 12 ref. PY: 1993

TI: Transport and lairage times of lambs slaughtered commercially in the south of England.

AD: AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Bristol Laboratory, Langford, Bristol, BS18 7DY, UK.

SO: Veterinary-Record. 1990, 127: 1, 5-8; 7 ref.

PY: 1990

TI: Effect of preslaughter transport on carcass yield and indices of meat quality in sheep.

AD: AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Bristol Laboratory, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY, UK.

SO: Journal-of-the-Science-of-Food-and-Agriculture. 1990, 51: 4, 517-523; 13 ref.

PY: 1990